Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental theory

1. Introduction: According to Piaget, cognitive development arises as a result of the interaction between the individual and the world around him and passes through a series of sequential stages.

 

2. Cognitive structure – ‘SCHEMATA’: The concept of cognitive structure is central to Piaget’s theory.  These structures called ‘Schemata’ processes information and undergo significant transformations during development, thus becoming qualitatively different at different stages.  The intelligence remains constant in any individual, whereas the structure alone changes qualitatively.

 

3. Process of cognitive development: There are four components viz., 1. Assimilation 2. Accommodation 3. Adapatation 4. Organisation

 

3.1 Assimilation: It means taking in information from the environment and fitting them into the existing schema in the individual

 

3.2. Accommodation: It means adjusting to incoming information by modifying the existing schema in the individual.

 

3.3. Adaptation: The process of assimilating the new to the old and by accommodating the old to the new, the person leans to adapt to the environment, which continues throughout life.  Whenever adaptation is not possible, a new schema is developed in addition to the existing schema

 

3.4. Organisation: Whenever many schemas are developed, they do not remain isolated but are well connected among themselves and this process of inter connecting schemas to form into a unified structure is known as ‘organisation’.

 

4. Stages of cognitive development: Through the development stages, the physical actions become mental operations based on which four important stages are:

 

4.1. Sensorimotor stage (0 to 2 years): This stage is mainly based on experience through the “senses”.  The child develops practical intelligence like seeing, grasping, sucking etc. to deal with objects in environment.  Characteristics of this stage are:

i) development of sensory, motor and perception skills

ii) co-ordination of motor activities

iii) learns object permanence in space and time

iv) progresses from reflex to intentional behaviour

v) self-concept develops

 

4.2. Pre-operational stage (2 to 7 years): There are two phases:

4.2.1. Pre-conceptual phase (2 to 4 years): The characteristics of this phase are:

i) object identification by names and put in classes

ii) illogical thinking and reasoning

iii) imaginative thinking

iv) egocentric nature

4.2.2. Intuitive phase (4 to 7years): The characteristics of this phase are:

i) thinks intuitively rather than logically

ii) reasoning about physically present objects and no abstract reasoning

iii) absence of reversibility: the child does not understand 5 x 2 =10 and also 2 x 5 = 10

iv) absence of conservation: for example, when two jars of same capacity but different shape such as one tall and narrow and the other jar short and wide, then the child says that the tall jar is bigger than short jar.

v) Centering: The child can understand only one dimension.  Concepts like area, volume are not clear to the child.

vi) does not understand rules in games

vii) considers parents as omnipresent and omnipotent

 

4.3. Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years): The characteristics are:

i) can perform classification and seriation

ii) understands reversibility. Ie.5 x 2 = 2 x 5 = 10

iii) understand decentering, can understand concepts like area, volume etc. having multiple dimensions

iv) can understand conservation. Ie. Child understands that jars with same volume but different shape are all same.

v) plays games as per rules

vi) transversibility is known.  Ie. If A=2B, A=2C, then they know B=C.

vii) evaluate crime in terms of magnitude , not motive

viii) rigid in thinking, do not understand realistic ideas

 

4.4. Formal operational stage (11 years and above): At this stage, thought becomes increasingly flexible and abstract.  Can perform systematic experiments, consider hypothetical objects and events, understand abstract ideas and principles and can theorize and also do critical evaluation.  Some of the characteristics are:

i) evaluates act based on motives underlying

ii) understands game rules are modifiable for positive development causes

iii) appreciates other’s viewpoints

iv) understand that nothing is absolute and that everything is relative

 

5. Educational implications:

- Set suitable tasks based on child’s stage of development

- use collaborative as well as individual activities

- focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it

 

6. Conclusion: This theory helps teach in kindergarden, primary, secondary classes to understand their cognitive development level and set teaching strategies accordingly.  

Erikson Psychosocial theory

Erikson Psychosocial theory

1. Introduction: Erickson postulated that the development of an individual is the result of his interaction with his social environment.  At different stages of development, the child faces a new crisis, ie., an issue that needs to be resolved at that particular stage of development.  The crisis of issues not resolved during one stage is supposed to carry over into the stages that follow in some way or the other.

2. Stages of psychosocial development: Each stage of development evolves into another through the whole life cycle and the complexity of the demands from society goes on increasing as the growth and development advances.

2.1. Stage1: The period of trust vs mistrust (birth to 1.5 years):

The baby is completely dependent upon its mother for its needs.  The way it is handled, nourished, protected and kept safe and comfortable may provide a sense of security or insecurity, a feeling of trust or mistrust in the mother and its surroundings

2.2. Stage2: The period of autonomy vs shame and doubt (1.5 to 3 years):

The child now explores his environment, experiments his strength and limitations for achieving a sense of autonomy and independence.  Children who are deprived the opportunity begin to feel embarrassed or ashamed.

2.3. Stage3: The period of initiative vs guilt ( 3 to 6 years): The child now begins to take initiative of interacting with his environment.  The extent to which the initiative is encouraged or discouraged by the parents or his/her social environment, develops the ability in the child to initiating plan and carrying out the activities in later life.  If the child is punished for minor failures, then a sense of guilt develops leading to indecision and lack of initiatives in future.

2.4. Stage4: The period of industry vs interiority (6 to 12 years):  Children begin to attend school.  They have to compete with their peers in terms of competence and productivity.  If the child performs well, he will be filled with a sense of achievement and develop a sense of industry.  If his performance remains lower, then he may look down upon himself and develop a sense of inferiority.

2.5. Stage5: The period of identity or role confusion (12 to 19 years): Sense of identity depends on the success in resolving the crisis related to all the previous stages.  Failing which, it may result in role confusion or in over identification.

2.6. Stage6 The period of intimacy vs isolation (20 to 45 years): The individual forms close personal attachments by merging his identity with that of another person.  He even tends to risk the loss of his ego or image.  For example, relationship between husband and wife, teacher and pupil.  When one fails to develop a close relationship, a sense of isolation develops.

2.7. Stage7 The period of creativity vs stagnation (45 to 65 years): An individual develops a sense of generativity by nurturing his own children, guiding and directing young people and engaging in creative, productive or fruitful activity that may be beneficial to society.

As opposed, there is a tendency to become egoistic and selfish.  This leads to stagnation and personal impoverishment.

2.8. Stage8 The period of ego-integrity vs despair (65 years onwards): Ego-integrity is the satisfaction of one’s ego stage on the successful resolution of crises in the previous stage of his life.  On the other hand, failure to solve the crisis, makes them look back at their lives with despair and dissatisfaction.

3. Strengths and Weaknesses of Erickson’s theory:

Strengths:

- Stage theory: Development took place in stages

- Ego identity: Formation of ego identity right from birth

-Crisis: every individual has to go through crisis in his/her life.

Weakness:

-Focus on the competing forces rather than emotional development of individuals

- Difficult to be tested scientifically as it is not possible to measure some of the concepts upon which the theory is based

- Fails to specify the effect of failure in one stage on the other which stages impacted.

4. Educational implications:

- Allow the child to understand and set his own limits rather than restrictions and punishments

-The child should be allowed and encouraged to make many number of attempts to complete a task.  Rebuke for minor failures to be avoided.

-Allow the child to grow in his field of interest to make him industrious, rather than force him to perform in pursuits he is not interested.

- Guidance at the right time about his education or career will help him build role identity and self confidence

5. Conclusion: Erickson’s psychosocial theory is a very powerful way for building self awareness and for improving oneself, as it helps to understand a person’s learning according to his or her personal differences.