1. Discuss the Erikson
Psychosocial theory
1. Introduction: Erickson
postulated that the development of an individual is the result of his
interaction with his social environment.
At different stages of development, the child faces a new crisis, ie.,
an issue that needs to be resolved at that particular stage of
development. The crisis of issues not
resolved during one stage is supposed to carry over into the stages that follow
in some way or the other.
2. Stages of psychosocial
development: Each stage of development evolves into another through the whole
life cycle and the complexity of the demands from society goes on increasing as
the growth and development advances.
2.1. Stage1: The period of
trust vs mistrust (birth to 1.5 years):
The baby is completely
dependent upon its mother for its needs.
The way it is handled, nourished, protected and kept safe and
comfortable may provide a sense of security or insecurity, a feeling of trust
or mistrust in the mother and its surroundings
2.2. Stage2: The period of
autonomy vs shame and doubt (1.5 to 3 years):
The child now explores his
environment, experiments his strength and limitations for achieving a sense of
autonomy and independence. Children who
are deprived the opportunity begin to feel embarrassed or ashamed.
2.3. Stage3: The period of
initiative vs guilt ( 3 to 6 years): The child now begins to take initiative of
interacting with his environment. The
extent to which the initiative is encouraged or discouraged by the parents or
his/her social environment, develops the ability in the child to initiating
plan and carrying out the activities in later life. If the child is punished for minor failures,
then a sense of guilt develops leading to indecision and lack of initiatives in
future.
2.4. Stage4: The period of
industry vs interiority (6 to 12 years):
Children begin to attend school.
They have to compete with their peers in terms of competence and
productivity. If the child performs well,
he will be filled with a sense of achievement and develop a sense of
industry. If his performance remains
lower, then he may look down upon himself and develop a sense of inferiority.
2.5. Stage5: The period of
identity or role confusion (12 to 19 years): Sense of identity depends on the
success in resolving the crisis related to all the previous stages. Failing which, it may result in role
confusion or in over identification.
2.6. Stage6 The period of
intimacy vs isolation (20 to 45 years): The individual forms close personal
attachments by merging his identity with that of another person. He even tends to risk the loss of his ego or
image. For example, relationship between
husband and wife, teacher and pupil.
When one fails to develop a close relationship, a sense of isolation
develops.
2.7. Stage7 The period of
creativity vs stagnation (45 to 65 years): An individual develops a sense of
generativity by nurturing his own children, guiding and directing young people
and engaging in creative, productive or fruitful activity that may be beneficial
to society.
As opposed, there is a
tendency to become egoistic and selfish.
This leads to stagnation and personal impoverishment.
2.8. Stage8 The period of
ego-integrity vs despair (65 years onwards): Ego-integrity is the satisfaction
of one’s ego stage on the successful resolution of crises in the previous stage
of his life. On the other hand, failure
to solve the crisis, makes them look back at their lives with despair and dissatisfaction.
3. Strengths and Weaknesses
of Erickson’s theory:
Strengths:
- Stage theory: Development
took place in stages
- Ego identity: Formation
of ego identity right from birth
-Crisis: every individual
has to go through crisis in his/her life.
Weakness:
-Focus on the competing forces
rather than emotional development of individuals
- Difficult to be tested
scientifically as it is not possible to measure some of the concepts upon which
the theory is based
- Fails to specify the
effect of failure in one stage on the other which stages impacted.
4. Educational
implications:
- Allow the child to understand
and set his own limits rather than restrictions and punishments
-The child should be
allowed and encouraged to make many number of attempts to complete a task. Rebuke for minor failures to be avoided.
-Allow the child to grow in
his field of interest to make him industrious, rather than force him to perform
in pursuits he is not interested.
- Guidance at the right
time about his education or career will help him build role identity and self
confidence
5. Conclusion: Erickson’s
psychosocial theory is a very powerful way for building self awareness and for
improving oneself, as it helps to understand a person’s learning according to
his or her personal differences.
2. Explain Piaget’s
Cognitive Developmental theory.
1. Introduction: According
to Piaget, cognitive development arises as a result of the interaction between
the individual and the world around him and passes through a series of
sequential stages.
2. Cognitive structure –
‘SCHEMATA’: The concept of cognitive structure is central to Piaget’s
theory. These structures called
‘Schemata’ processes information and undergo significant transformations during
development, thus becoming qualitatively different at different stages. The intelligence remains constant in any
individual, whereas the structure alone changes qualitatively.
3. Process of cognitive
development: There are four components viz., 1. Assimilation 2. Accommodation
3. Adapatation 4. Organisation
3.1 Assimilation: It means
taking in information from the environment and fitting them into the existing
schema in the individual
3.2. Accommodation: It
means adjusting to incoming information by modifying the existing schema in the
individual.
3.3. Adaptation: The
process of assimilating the new to the old and by accommodating the old to the
new, the person leans to adapt to the environment, which continues throughout
life. Whenever adaptation is not
possible, a new schema is developed in addition to the existing schema
3.4. Organisation: Whenever
many schemas are developed, they do not remain isolated but are well connected
among themselves and this process of inter connecting schemas to form into a
unified structure is known as ‘organisation’.
4. Stages of cognitive
development: Through the development stages, the physical actions become mental
operations based on which four important stages are:
4.1. Sensorimotor stage (0
to 2 years): This stage is mainly based on experience through the “senses”. The child develops practical intelligence
like seeing, grasping, sucking etc. to deal with objects in environment. Characteristics of this stage are:
i) development of sensory,
motor and perception skills
ii) co-ordination of motor
activities
iii) learns object
permanence in space and time
iv) progresses from reflex
to intentional behaviour
v) self-concept develops
4.2. Pre-operational stage
(2 to 7 years): There are two phases:
4.2.1. Pre-conceptual phase
(2 to 4 years): The characteristics of this phase are:
i) object identification by
names and put in classes
ii) illogical thinking and
reasoning
iii) imaginative thinking
iv) egocentric nature
4.2.2. Intuitive phase (4
to 7years): The characteristics of this phase are:
i) thinks intuitively
rather than logically
ii) reasoning about
physically present objects and no abstract reasoning
iii) absence of
reversibility: the child does not understand 5 x 2 =10 and also 2 x 5 = 10
iv) absence of
conservation: for example, when two jars of same capacity but different shape
such as one tall and narrow and the other jar short and wide, then the child
says that the tall jar is bigger than short jar.
v) Centering: The child can
understand only one dimension. Concepts
like area, volume are not clear to the child.
vi) does not understand
rules in games
vii) considers parents as
omnipresent and omnipotent
4.3. Concrete operational
stage (7 to 11 years): The characteristics are:
i) can perform
classification and seriation
ii) understands
reversibility. Ie.5 x 2 = 2 x 5 = 10
iii) understand
decentering, can understand concepts like area, volume etc. having multiple
dimensions
iv) can understand
conservation. Ie. Child understands that jars with same volume but different
shape are all same.
v) plays games as per rules
vi) transversibility is
known. Ie. If A=2B, A=2C, then they know
B=C.
vii) evaluate crime in
terms of magnitude , not motive
viii) rigid in thinking, do
not understand realistic ideas
4.4. Formal operational
stage (11 years and above): At this stage, thought becomes increasingly
flexible and abstract. Can perform
systematic experiments, consider hypothetical objects and events, understand
abstract ideas and principles and can theorize and also do critical evaluation. Some of the characteristics are:
i) evaluates act based on
motives underlying
ii) understands game rules
are modifiable for positive development causes
iii) appreciates other’s
viewpoints
iv) understand that nothing
is absolute and that everything is relative
5. Educational
implications:
- Set suitable tasks based
on child’s stage of development
- use collaborative as well
as individual activities
- focus on the process of
learning, rather than the end product of it
6. Conclusion: This theory
helps teach in kindergarden, primary, secondary classes to understand their
cognitive development level and set teaching strategies accordingly.
3. Describe Vygotsky’s
Sociocultural theory.
1. Introduction: The work of Lev Vygotsky
has become the foundation of many research and theory in cognitive development,
particularly the social development theory.
Vygotsky believed strongly that community plays
a central role in the process of "making meaning."
2. Vygotsky’s socio cultural theory: He believed that the social interactions
with adults and more learned peers and the cultural environment can facilitate
a child’s potential for learning. Some of Vygotsky’s key concepts are:
2.1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): It is the distance
between the actual development level as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential development as determined through
problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable
peers.
2.2. Scaffolding: It is the temporary
support or help that the teacher or parent gives to the child for completing a
task.
2.3. More
Knowledgeable other (MKO): it refers to
someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the
learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
3. Effect of
culture: Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the
basic materials/abilities for intellectual development. Lev Vygotsky refers to
'elementary mental functions' –
- Attention
-
Sensation
- Perception
- Memory
Eventually, through interaction within the sociocultural
environment, these are developed into more sophisticated and effective mental
processes/strategies which he refers to as 'higher mental functions.'
Example: in our culture, we learn note-taking to aid memory, but in
pre-literate societies, other strategies must be developed, such as tying knots
in a string to remember, or carrying pebbles, or repetition of the names of
ancestors until large numbers can be repeated
Vygotsky, therefore, sees cognitive functions,
even those carried out alone, as affected by the beliefs, values, and tools of
intellectual adaptation of the culture in which a person develops and therefore
socio-culturally determined. The tools of intellectual adaptation, therefore,
vary from culture to culture - as in the memory example
4. Social influence on learning: According to
Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social
interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviours and/or
provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as
cooperative or collaborative dialogue.
Example: An
activity in which children had to decide which items of
furniture should be placed in particular areas of a dolls house. It was found that those who had previously
worked with their mother (ZPD) showed the greatest improvement compared with
their first attempt at the task. The conclusion being that guided
learning within the ZPD led
to greater understanding/performance than working alone (discovery learning).
5. Vygotsky and Language: Vygotsky believed that language develops from
social interactions, for communication purposes. Vygotsky (ifferentiates between three forms
of language: social speech which is external communication used to talk to
others (typical from the age of two); private speech (typical from the age of
three) which is directed to the self and serves an intellectual function; and
finally private speech goes underground, diminishing in audibility as it takes
on a self-regulating function and is transformed into silent inner speech
(typical from the age of seven).
6. Educational implication: A good teacher identifies a child’s ZPD and helps
the child stretch beyond it. Then the adult (teacher) gradually withdraws
support until the child can then perform the task unaided. Reciprocal
teaching, apprenticeship, collaborative learning are all some of the ways of
classroom application of Vygotsky’s theories.
7. Conclusion: Thus Vygotsky’s theories are
highly useful in education.
4. Summarize Ecological
systems theory.
1. Introduction: Ecological system
theory views the child as developing with in a complex system of relationships affected
by multiple levels of the surrounding environment. Bronfenbrenner envisioned
the environment as a series of nested
structures that form a complex
functioning whole, or system. These include but also extend beyond the home,
school, and neighbourhood settings in which children spend their everyday lives.
Each layer of the environment joins with the others to powerfully affect development.
2. The Five
Environmental Systems
The ecological systems
theory holds that we encounter different environments throughout our lifespan
that may influence our behaviour in varying degrees. These systems include the
micro system, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macro system, and the
chronosystem.
3.The Microsystem: The
innermost level of the environment, the microsystem, consists of activities and
interaction patterns in the child’s immediate surroundings.The micro system's
setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family,
friends,classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people who have a direct
contact with you are included in your micro system. The micro system is the
setting in which we have direct social interactions with these social agents.
The theory states that we are not mere recipients of the experiences we have
when socializing with these people in the micro system environment, but we are
contributing to the construction of such environment.
4. The Mesosystem: The
second level of Bronfenbrenner’s model, the mesosystem, encompasses connections
between microsystems, such as home, school, and neighborhood, and childcare
center.The mesosytem involves the relationships between the microsystems in
one's life. This means that your family experience may be related to your
school experience. For example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may
have a low chance of developing positive attitude towards his teachers. Also,
this child may feel awkward in the presence of peers and may resort to
withdrawal from a group of classmates.
5. The Exosystem: The
exosystem consists of social settings that do not contain children but that
nevertheless affect children’s experiences in immediate settings. The exosystem
is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in the person
does not have any active role, and the context where in is actively
participating. Suppose a child is more attached to his father than his mother.
If the father goes abroad to work for several months, there may be a conflict
between the mother and the child's social relationship, or on the other hand,
this event may result to a tighter bond between the mother and the child.
6. The Macrosystem:The outermost level of Bronfenbrenner’s model,
the macrosystem, consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources. The
macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an individual. The cultural
contexts involve the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his
ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a third world country.
For example, being born to a poor family makes a person work harder every day.
7. The Chronosystem: The
chronosystem includes the transitions and shifts in one's lifespan. This may
also involve the socio-historical contexts that may influence a person. One
classic example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may affect
not only the couple's relationship but also their children's behaviour.
8. Conclusion: The Ecological theory instigates that environmental
factors play an important role in the development process. In particular, Bronfenbrenner
emphasizes on the need to enhance primary relationships in family setups or in
immediate spheres of life where a child receives direct influence. It is also
vital to foster societal values as well as attitudes accorded by teachers,
siblings, extended family, work supervisors or legislators which have direct
influence on positive development of children. Thus political and economic
policies which give importance to parental role in proper child development and
upbringing need be put in place.
5. Describe Kohlberg’s
stages of moral development
1.
Introduction: Kohlberg defined moral development as the development of
individual’s sense of justice
2.
Kohlberg’s six stages of moral development:
Level1:
Pre moral (Age 4 to 10 years)
Stage1: Obedience and punishment
orientation
Stage2: Individualism and exchange /
Personal reward orientation
Level2:
Conventional morality (Age 10 to 13 years)
Stage3: Interpersonal relationship
Stage4: Maintaining the social order
Level3:
Self-accepted moral principles (Age 13 or not until middle childhood)
Stage5: Social contract and individual
rights
Stage6: universal ethical principles and
self-conscience
3.
Pre moral level: The child starts to
make judgement based on the moral standards set by others. The child judges good and bad and what is
right and wrong, in order to avoid punishment or to earn rewards.
Stage1:
The child obeys his parents and elders in order to avoid reproof and
punishment.
EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATION: It is important for a primary school
teacher to set clear guidelines for behaviour, and clear consequences for
misbehaviour. It is important to stay consistent with the code of conduct and
punishment system throughout the school year.
Stage2:
The child begins to see the practical utility in everything, which serves his
interest. He obeys his parents and
elders in order to earn some reward.
EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATION: It is a good idea to introduce
classroom activities that encourage cooperation between students. Games and
assignments that require students to help one another in order to succeed will
help students at this stage to further develop their moral reasoning skills, as
they begin to see morality in terms of helping others for their own
self-interest.
4.
Conventional morality: In this level
also the child’s judgement is based on the conventions, rules and regulations,
law and order within the society.
Stage3:
They begin to judge the likes or dislikes of others and act accordingly to gain
name as good boy or good girl.
EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATION: allowing students in this stage to have a
hand in creating the code of conduct by discussing how different behaviours
affect other students, students will be more willing to follow the rules. At
this stage, students may start to become unwilling to blindly follow rules if
they don’t understand the reasoning behind them.
Stage4:
Here the child’s moral judgement is governed by conventions, laws and morals of
the social system. They understand the
rules and regulations of the society and begin to obey them to avoid censure by
authority or social system.
EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATION: Allow for a written self evaluation as part of any
disciplinary consequence. It does not have to be lengthy, but it should provide
the student with adequate time to review their own reasoning for misbehavior
and to come up with a solution for the future. This type of action relates to
Kohlberg's fourth stage of morality, in which individuals do their part to
maintain order by reflecting on the impact of their words and actions.
5.
Self-accepted moral principles level: This is the highest level in the
attainment of true morality. They follow
the idea of others or the rules of the society, not just to obey them but
because it fits in the framework of their self-accepted moral principles.
Stage5:
At this stage, they begin to value human rights and the welfare of society and
based on these principles, they respond positively.
EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATIONs: Allow ample time for group projects and
activities that give students at different stages of development the
opportunity to work together and to learn how their behaviours affects others
in a social context.
Stage6:
At this stage, they begin to follow the inner voice of their conscience.
EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATION: Make time for role play,
whether it be related to the curriculum or used as a problem solving tool. By
acting or seeing situations through the eyes of others, students gain a more
broad understanding of what is taking place. This helps them to make decisions
based not on themselves, but on a commitment to the group. Similarly, they have
advanced to Kohlberg's sixth stage, in which the needs of every person in
society are worth considering. In a classroom, a brief skit or scenario can
help students focus on making sure everyone is involved and engaged in
learning.
6. Conclusion: Thus teachers can easily apply Kohlberg’s moral theory in class according to the stage in which the child is.
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